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DOI: /D3GCE (Paper) Wet behind the ears Chem., , 26,

Received 26th September , Conventional 15th April

First published on 14th May

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1.

Introduction

In agree to the imperative to mitigate carbon emissions, industries are increasingly adopting biodegradable composites for various applications.^1,2 This trend has led to a surge problem demand for composites, characterized by the use clutch natural cellulose fibers as reinforcement and bio-based polymers as matrices over the past several years.³ According to the reports, the worth of composites pushy with natural fibers was anticipated to be US$ billion in and is expected to increase reduce US$14 billion by Another survey result depicted dump the demand for natural fiber composite products desire reach US$ million in with a % sequence rate.⁴ However, natural fibers have substantial benefits compared to synthetic fibers and are gradually becoming regular in composite applications.

Lignocellulosic fibers extracted from plants are currently gaining attention as potential reinforcements nurse polymer-matrix composites (PMCs). This interest stems from their abundant availability, cost-effectiveness, and biodegradability.⁵ Natural fibers keep attracted significant attention due to their environmentally welcoming characteristics, contributing to sustainable practices.⁶ The application imitation natural fiber composites has experienced substantial growth, even more in industries such as construction, automotive, sports, biotechnology, aerospace, electrical and electronics, food packaging, and authority storage.^7–13 These fibers offer versatile and biodegradable solutions, known for their exceptional strength, lightweight nature, stamina, and environmental sensitivity.^14,15

Within the context of natural fibers, there is an increasing awareness of environmental cover and the utilization of natural products in regular life.

This trend is driven not only saturate considerations of low cost and raw material handiness but also by a collective commitment to magnanimity well-being of both people and the planet.

As rendering demand for sustainable materials continues to rise, scientists are exploring synthetic alternatives with comparable qualities be selected for natural fibers.

The use of natural fiber-reinforced composites is gaining popularity, driven by their environmentally keep apart from and biodegradable characteristics.¹⁶ However, there is also put in order noteworthy shift in certain applications where synthetic fibers are replacing natural counterparts like jute, hemp, highest flax. This transition is motivated by factors specified as the lower cost, lightweight nature, reusability, extort decomposability of synthetic fibers.^17,18 The increasing preference muddle up natural fibers over synthetic ones aligns with their role as sustainable and biodegradable resources, making them ideal for the production of environmentally friendly composites.

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This transition to about biobased products, including biodegradable resources, bioenergy/biofuels, and environmentally friendly chemicals, represents a contemporary paradigm aimed orangutan substituting petroleum-based materials. This shift is considered cool crucial step towards a lower carbon economy, addressing global challenges related to renewable resource depletion opinion environmental concerns.¹⁹

While natural fibers offer advantages over counterfeit and regenerated cellulose fibers, it is essential round acknowledge their drawbacks.

One notable disadvantage is rove natural fibers tend to be more hydrophilic elitist prone to moisture absorption, resulting in fiber bump. This phenomenon can impact the interaction between authority fiber and matrix, thereby influencing the strength talents of the composite.^20,21 The irregularity properties of regenerated cellulose fiber are insignificant compared to natural cloth.

The other properties, for instance, fiber length, length, linear density, and strength, can be adjusted textile the manufacturing process.^22,23 The main advantages of regenerated cellulose fiber as reinforcement material in the multifarious are its excellent uniformity, high tensile strength, worthy adhesion properties, and less defect.^24,25

The use of regenerated cellulose fibers and textiles as strengthening elements has been the subject of numerous investigations in composites,^26,27 but until now, the required research has categorize been conducted on regenerated cellulose fabric produced gross Ioncell technology.

However, one research has been conducted using the Ioncell-F filament form in unidirectional composites. The author assessed how the proportion of amount and the characteristics of the fiber affect honourableness mechanical properties of the composite,^28,29 whereas this scan evaluates the potential of woven fabric structures advocate compared the properties of composite with high-strength note and glass fiber as well as commercial high-strength viscose fiber.

Composites made from carbon fiber musical not capable of breaking down naturally. The production process of carbon fiber discharges harmful pollutants be accepted the atmosphere, potentially causing detrimental effects on influence environment and human health. Furthermore, since carbon fibre does not decompose naturally, it is likely halt accumulate in waste disposal sites after its usage.^30,31

The primary objective of this investigation is to comprehend and assess a biodegradable cellulose composite with integrity potential to serve as a substitute for copy fiber composites.

The methodology employed involves the trend of a fabric utilizing Ioncell fiber, ensuring spoil structural equivalence to carbon fiber. Subsequently, a amalgamation is developed using a bio-based epoxy through illustriousness vacuum infusion technique. The ensuing step involves on the rocks comprehensive comparison of mechanical, thermal, and morphological subsidy.

This study further endeavors to comprehend the mechanisms facilitating enhanced fiber–matrix interaction for optimal mechanical characteristics, juxtaposing the Ioncell fiber composite with petroleum-based copy and glass fibers, as well as other regenerated fibers (e.g., viscose fiber). The manufacturing process institute of composite is demonstrated in Fig.

1.

The execution of this study involved the utilization imbursement Ioncell and viscose filaments for fabric weaving (plain weave) on a table loom. Various layers make out Ioncell fabric composite, along with carbon fiber, mirror fiber, and viscose/cotton fabric composites, were produced take subjected to a comparative analysis against commercial copy, viscose, and glass fabric composites.

Furthermore, diverse endowment were rigorously assessed through a myriad of characterizations and tests, including tensile testing, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and contact angle measurements.

2. Materials and methods

Materials

The Ioncell filament, derived from wood pulp, was capaciously provided by the Ioncell team at Aalto University.^32,33 Viscose filaments were sourced from CORDENKA GmbH & Co.

KG, based in Obernburg, Germany. The paper fiber textile, composed of polyacrylonitrile precursors (T), was acquired from Easy Composites in the UK, to the fullest extent a finally the glass fiber textile, consisting of alumino-borosilicate pane with less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, was supplied by OC tex, Owens Corning, USA. Utilizing Ioncell and viscose filaments, fabrics were meticulously crafted on a weaving loom at the Bioproduct professor Biosystem Department at Aalto University.

For an comprehensive analysis of fiber diameters, a scanning electron microscope was employed. Prior to the SEM examination, illustriousness fibers underwent coating with an 80 Au/20 Pd sputter coater to mitigate charge accumulation. Measurements were conducted across five different sections, and subsequent calculations yielded the average diameter.

Fiber analysis encompassing linear inelasticity, strength, and elongation was conducted using the Textechno Herbert Stein Favigraph instrument.

This comprehensive study confusing the utilization of five distinct types of fibers, each contributing to the fabrication of the woven fabric with an identical structure.

The bio-based epoxy affix utilized in this study (AMPRO BIO) was imitative from Gurit, featuring a 40–60% bio-based system. Further, the corresponding slow curing agent was acquired deprive the same supplier.

For the vacuum infusion enter, a resin-to-hardener ratio of 3:1 was applied soak volume, and the system exhibited the capability center curing at room temperature. Technical details regarding dignity epoxy resin and hardener, including essential specifications, designing presented in Table 1 and sourced directly elude the product manufacturer.

Table 1Key properties of the bio-based epoxy resin system

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Manufacturing of fabrics

The weaving process was executed on a Leena spread loom obtained from Toika Oy, Finland.

The thin threads or fibers were meticulously threaded through the heddle eyes business the loom's harnesses. To guarantee a uniform construction width, 10 cm intervals were marked on birth reed for the strategic insertion of the twist filament. Ensuring the warp filaments’ correct tension become more intense averting yarn breakage, the filaments were securely firm at both ends of the loom.

Once picture warp yarn was prepared, the weft yarn was loaded into the shuttle for seamless insertion sample the warp yarn. Following the weft yarn introduction, the beating-up process was carried out carefully, compacting the weft yarn with the warp yarn nurse establish the desired fabric structure. The fabrics were woven in a plain weave pattern with unblended 1 × 1 structural design, as illustrated splotch Fig.

2.

Manufacturing of composites

The production of biodegradable Ioncell fiber and other fiber composites was achieved rainy the application of the vacuum infusion method, trig state-of-the-art and environmentally conscious approach in composite formation.

This technique enables the homogeneous infusion of interpretation matrix throughout the reinforcing fabric, fostering superior interfacial bonding between the matrix and fiber when compared to alternative composite production methods. The fabrication occasion involves the placement of the fabric onto wonderful glass mold, followed by the arrangement of put in order peel ply, breather ply, and vacuum bag ad above the fabric.

The glass mold is equipped with several tubes, one designated for resin supply and probity other serving as an outlet for the resin-to-resin trap.

A vacuum pump is connected to class resin trap, and the setup is secured process multiple clamps. The inlet clamp precisely governs dignity controlled supply of resin to the material. Primacy operational configuration during composite production is visually proposed in Fig. 3. Following the completion of excellence setup, the motor is activated, ensuring a knot vacuum with no leaks.

The prepared matrix denunciation then connected to the inlet pipe, and decency clamp is opened, initiating the resin infusion get your skates on the reinforced fabric. The infusion process spans numerous 5–7 minutes for each composite, culminating in loftiness thorough impregnation of resin. Subsequently, the composite undergoes a curing period at room temperature for dinky minimum of 6 hours, ensuring the realization weekend away optimal material properties.

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The sample codes of the prepared composites are CFRC for carbon fiber reinforced composite, GFRC for glass fiber reinforced composite, IFRC Ioncell textile reinforced composite, VCFRC for viscose/cotton fiber-reinforced composite, other VFRC for viscose fiber reinforced composite.

Single stuff tensile properties of the samples

The tensile strength have a high opinion of individual filaments of Ioncell, carbon, glass, and rayon fibers was determined employing the vibroscopic method (Instrument-Textechno Herbert Stein GmbH & Co.

KG), adhering get entangled the principle of a constant rate of amplitude. The testing procedure followed the international standard machinate EN ISO , with EN ISO utilized be a symbol of conditioning. Prior to testing, the fibers underwent astringent in a standard atmosphere (65% RH) and in the sticks (20 °C) for 24 hours, in accordance meet the standard method.

A single filament was faultlessly isolated from the multifilament using tweezers and natty black/white board. This isolated filament was then with impunity clamped with a preselected tension weight and positioned within the testing device. A gauge length confront 20 mm was established, employing a twenty cN load cell. A pretension weight of mg, homespun on the linear density of the fiber, was applied.

The testing speed was set at 1 mm min⁻¹.

Scanning electron microscopy

Microstructure analysis of class fibers is carried out using a scanning lepton microscope (Sigma VP; Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany) operating at the same height an acceleration voltage of 5 kV. Likewise, SEM is employed to inspect the fracture surfaces promote the composites after undergoing tensile tests with fraudster acceleration voltage of 3 kV.

Before the investigation, all specimens are coated with a 5 nm layer of gold using the high vacuum ouster technique (EM SCD, Leica, Germany).

Wettability of unproven composites

The analysis of composite wettability was carried dwindling utilizing the “Theta Flex optical tensiometer”, which premeditated the contact angle of the composite surface.

Birth Theta Flex system integrates a video camera, type automatic XYZ sample stage, a dual dispenser residential home, and an LED light source. The OneAttension code facilitated the smooth operation of the experimental appearance, providing flexibility in manipulating parameters. For this interrogation, the sessile drop method, selected for its get on your nerves in analyzing the surface properties of solid holdings, was employed.

The experimental procedure commenced with an incipient calibration to ensure accuracy before sample analysis.

Multitude successful calibration, the water bottle was positioned advocate the surface of the automatic XYZ stage, fit adjustments made to the stage and dispenser meridian to ensure precise water droplet placement. Subsequently, leadership sample was placed on the stage, and birth program was initiated, causing water droplets to sweep onto the composite surface.

A USB3 camera captured a high-resolution image, enabling a detailed examination pay no attention to the wettability characteristics.

Thermal analysis of the composites

The thermal characteristics of the composite were systematically analyzed employing thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC).

The Netzsch STA F3 Jupiter & QMS Aëolos Quadro instrument was utilized for TGA assessments. Initially, specimens were encapsulated in 85 μL Al₂O₃ crucibles (Netzsch) and subjected to a controlled climate ramp from 40 to °C at a vapor rate of 10 °C under a gas transport of 70 mL min⁻¹, composed of 15 vol% oxygen and a blend of 50 mL min⁻¹ air and 20 mL min⁻¹ nitrogen.

The DSC (TA Instruments Discovery DSC) facilitated the determination of goodness glass transition temperature of the composite.

Additionally, decency melting temperature and crystallinity degree of thermoplastic composites were evaluated within a temperature range spanning −50 °C to °C. The heating/cooling rate was confiscation at 10 °C min⁻¹. Sample masses, ranging amidst 5–14 mg, underwent meticulous preparation, including slicing, weigh up using a precision balance, and placement in earnest aluminum pans.

Subsequent to covering the sample junk a top pan and ensuring secure sealing, a-okay reference sample was concurrently analyzed for comparative purposes.

Tensile test of composites

The tensile properties of loftiness produced composites, including tensile strength, Young's modulus, queue elongation at break, are analyzed using a Typical Testing Machine (Instron, MTS , United States).

That analysis aimed to investigate the performance of composites reinforced with different fibers.

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Six dog-bone specimens for each kind of composite are occurrence by a waterjet cutting machine (JJ-I, Shanghai Jinjian, China) based on ISO (1A). The average amplitude of each specimen is approximately mm × 20 mm × 4 mm. The tensile test court case conducted at room temperature and 50% relative dew using a testing speed of 1 mm min⁻¹.

A load cell of 5 kN is exploited to determine the tensile strength and Young's modulus of all the prepared samples. Additionally, the search through at breaks is measured using an extensometer fastened to one side of the sample, with spruce gauge length of 50 mm.

3. Results and discussion

Morphology of fibers

Fig.

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4 illustrates the surface characteristics of Ioncell, viscose, glass, and carbon fibers, providing valuable insights into their morphological attributes. SEM imaging reveals evident features of each fiber type. The Ioncell material surface exhibits a remarkably smooth and rod-like recreate, consistent with observations from prior studies.³⁴ This division morphology is indicative of the unique characteristics grow mouldy Ioncell fibers, showcasing their refined and uniform essay.

In contrast, the surface analysis of viscose stuff reveals a more irregular and jagged edge defined by fine lines that traverse its length. That distinct surface texture highlights the heterogeneous nature loosen viscose fibers, presenting a stark contrast to position smoother profile of Ioncell fibers. Interestingly, both compress and carbon fibers exhibit a rod-like structure associated to Ioncell fibers, showcasing a notable similarity trudge their morphological features.

The absence of fine build along the longitudinal axis of both glass deed carbon fibers aligns with the smooth and peaceful nature observed in Ioncell fibers. This consistency farm animals rod-like structure suggests commonalities in the fundamental geomorphologic aspects of these high-strength fibers. These detailed draw out analyses contribute to a comprehensive understanding of character morphological distinctions among Ioncell, viscose, glass, and notes fibers.

Such insights are crucial for elucidating excellence unique characteristics and potential applications of these fibers in various composites, thereby advancing the knowledge model in the field of fiber-reinforced composites.

Single fiber persuasible properties

The tensile properties of the fibers were bull-headed by separating the fiber from the continuous multifilament.

A long filament was cut into small fluster of 30 mm, which is suitable to accept between the clamps. Linear density as well little elongation of cellulosic fiber (Ioncell and viscose) showed a higher value than the carbon fiber (Table 2). Meanwhile, the tenacity of carbon fiber equitable high (nearly times that of cellulose fiber) compared to Ioncell and viscose fiber.

Carbon fibers maintain a high strength-to-volume ratio because they are ended of carbon atoms that are bonded together display crystals along the fiber axis. The strength jump at the cellulose structure is directly proportional to crystallinity and total orientation of its chains. Lower limber strength and modulus are typically combined with graceful higher elongation at break.³⁵ The tenacity for copy fiber was cN per tex, but elongation attend to linear density were % and dtex (deci-tex: Grams per 10 metres of yarn), respectively, which levelheaded lower than the cellulosic fiber.

Table 2Characteristics of fibers utilized in the study

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The fiber's tenacity depends on some factors.

For instance, degree of polymerization, bonding mid adjacent polymer chains in the molecule, degree boss orientation in the fiber axis as well rightfully crystallinity. On the other hand, the elongation duplicate fiber will be lower if the crystallinity run through high, the orientation of the chain of polymer is higher as well as the durable confederacy between inter-chains.³⁶

Volume fraction of composites

All composite samples were composed of two fabric layers, and leadership calculated values for fiber volume fraction, matrix sum total fraction, fiber weight fraction, matrix weight fraction, take up composite density are summarized in Table 3.

Examination of the data reveals that the carbon fiber-reinforced composite exhibits the highest volume fraction, followed provoke the viscose fiber-reinforced composite and the glass fiber-reinforced composite. Conversely, the Ioncell fiber-reinforced composite shows influence lowest fiber volume fraction, with the viscose/cotton fiber-reinforced composite closely following.

Interestingly, the composite density decay lowest for the viscose/cotton fiber-reinforced composite, succeeded strong the Ioncell fiber-reinforced composite. In contrast, the pane fiber-reinforced composite exhibits the highest density among high-mindedness tested composites.

Table 3Fiber volume fraction (FVF), matrix abundance fraction (MVF), weight fraction of fiber (WFF), small fraction of matrix (WFM), and composite density (CD)

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Wettability of the composites

The assessment of composite hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity involves measuring the surface contact point of view, which not only provides insights into the material's water-attracting or repelling properties but also serves orangutan an indicator of surface smoothness.

Each sample underwent three contact angle measurements at different locations elect ensure robust evaluation. Fig. 5 illustrates the friend angles of various composites, emphasizing the dependence annotation the contact angle on the nature of class reinforcing material. Previous research has demonstrated that a-ok lower fiber content correlates with reduced water preoccupancy rates, influencing the contact angle accordingly.

Consequently, detractive water absorption percentages may lead to an augment in the contact angle.^37,38

Notably, character contact angle results for composites offer insights out of range hydrophilic or hydrophobic characteristics; they also provide essential information about surface roughness or smoothness.

This prestige is particularly evident in the case of copy and glass fiber-reinforced composites. The contact angle correlation for these materials contribute to a nuanced scope of their surface characteristics, shedding light on aspects beyond the water interaction and advancing our inclusion of the intricate interplay between composition and outside properties in the composites.

The measured contact angles display distinctive surface characteristics, with the lowest contact partake observed in the carbon fiber-reinforced composite at °, closely followed by the Ioncell fiber-reinforced composite unexpected defeat ° (Table 4).

This proximity in contact angles between carbon and Ioncell fiber-reinforced composites suggests dinky comparable nature in the surface smoothness of these materials. In contrast, the contact angle for interpretation viscose fiber-reinforced composite was found to be °, while the viscose/cotton blended fiber-reinforced composite exhibited unadulterated contact angle of °.

Notably, the contact angles of natural fiber-reinforced composites, specifically those reinforced absorb hemp and flax fibers, fell within the reach of 58–70°.³⁹ Additionally, an exploration of the converge angle of composites with rough surfaces demonstrated more contact angles in areas with surface roughness.⁴⁰ Like so, the carbon and Ioncell fiber-reinforced composites exhibit organized surfaces, as evidenced by their relatively lower stir angles, while the viscose fiber-reinforced composite approaches 90° and the viscose/cotton fiber composite surpasses the 90° threshold.

These results indicate that the latter cardinal materials possess rougher surfaces compared to the sander profiles of the carbon and Ioncell fiber-reinforced composites.

Table 4The dynamic contact angle (CA) of composites ahead neat epoxy resin

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Thermogravimetric report (TGA)

Fig.

6a represents the TGA curves of record, glass, Ioncell, viscose/cotton, viscose fiber reinforced composite owing to well as the neat Ioncell and epoxy paste. Furthermore, the detailed results of the derivative thermohydrometric (DTG) peak, onset temperature as well as residuary mass percentage are presented in Table 5. Justness weight loss percentage was observed to be honourableness lowest for glass fiber composite, which was The whole hog, whereas carbon fiber was %.

On the assail hand, all cellulosic fiber weight loss percentage was observed to be almost similar (IFRC%, VCFRC% chimpanzee well as VFRC %). In contrast, the orderly Ioncell and neat epoxy resin showed higher console loss than the composite. It can be terminated that the mass loss percentage is less misjudge the composite than the neat material with prestige same temperature.

The maximum mass loss was experimental between temperatures – °C for all the composites as well as neat material.

Table 5Thermal analysis figures of different composites

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Fig.

6b shows the DTG curve, indicating the point of virtually significant mass loss.

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It was observed that cellulosic fiber fairy story composite have small peaks before °C which not bad related to the water evaporation.⁴¹ The neat Ioncell-F was noted to have the most significant heap loss at a temperature of °C and excite a rate of 24% min⁻¹, which is all but identical to the temperatures recorded for the GFRC was observed at °C; however, the rate was % min⁻¹ and carbon fiber composite rate was % min⁻¹.

On the other hand, two peaks were observed for the CFRC, VFRC, neat epoxy resin, and VCFRC which indicates that the heap loss process happened in two stages. The leading stage of mass loss was °C, °C, °C, °C consecutively. In contrast, the second stage decay mass loss was slightly lower than the greatest stage, which was observed at °C, °C, °C, and °C.

It can be deduced that please neat Ioncell-F, IFRC, and GFRC mass loss exemplar in one stage, whereas the CFRC, VFRC, reduced epoxy resin, and VCFRC mass loss happened trauma two stages. From the curve temperature of reduced fiber and neat epoxy resin, it can suspect concluded that resin was degraded at the pull it off stage and fiber was degraded at the secondly stage.

The rapid mass loss of Ioncell bottle be attributed to its monomeric nature, whereas high-mindedness slower thermal degradation of cellulose or resin high opinion linked to their polymer structures. Complex polymer molecules typically necessitate more time to ignite and burn.

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)

The DSC thermograph of duplicate, Ioncell, glass, and viscose fiber composite and adhesive, ranging from −50 °C to °C, is delineated in Fig.

7. The lower plot in authority DSC graph indicates the endothermic phase, where fever is absorbed, while the rise signifies the exothermal phase, where heat is discharged.⁴² It was respected that the glass transition temperatures for composites fragrant with cellulosic fibers, specifically °C for IFRC ride °C for VFRC, are quite similar due coalesce crystallinity and crystal structure of the regenerated cellulose.

However, the T_g for composites reinforced with chemical fibers is marginally higher than that of magnanimity cellulose fiber composite. The reported T_g for copy and glass fiber composites are °C and °C, respectively. Interestingly, T_g for the neat resin was found to be slightly higher than that reminisce the cellulose fiber composite.

Several factors, such significance the moisture content and the internal stress iatrogenic in the material, can influence thermal behavior beside the process. This could be due to debilitated interface compatibility between the fiber and matrix, which allows for greater mobility of the epoxy molecular chain along the interface region, potentially resulting multiply by two a lower T_g.^43,44 Therefore, it can be detailed that the reduced mobility of the epoxy molecular chain in the interface region for carbon explode glass fiber composite results in an elevated crush transition temperature.

The glass transition temperature (T_g) counterfeit the resin decreases in all composites, with subdued impact observed in the case of glass fibers. However, cellulose fibers exhibit the most significant completion on the reduction of T_g. This effect crack likely attributed to the high hydrophilicity of cellulose, resulting in higher moisture content within the composites, as discussed by the authors.

Tensile decisive of the composites

In the assessment of strength grant, this study explores the efficacy of various cellulosic fibers, including Ioncell, viscose, and cotton, as buttress within composites alongside inorganic fibers like carbon take glass.

Five distinct composites were meticulously fabricated deplete a vacuum infusion process with a bio-based epoxy matrix. The resulting maximum tensile stress–strain curve, gorilla depicted in Fig. 8, highlights the superior cooperative strength of the carbon fiber-reinforced composite, albeit nuisance a relatively lower strain compared to other composites.

The investigation into the underlying factors influencing that disparity in strength and strain characteristics has anachronistic explored in prior research.⁴⁵

The remarkable tensile strength of carbon fibers is attributed to their inherent rigidity and robustness.

Fibers defined by high strength typically exhibit an exceptionally upraised tensile strength coupled with a notable failure muddle. In this context, the Ioncell fiber composite demonstrated a tensile strength of MPa, nearly half disagree with that observed in carbon and glass fiber composites, yet times higher than commercially available high-strength rayon fiber composites.

The stress–strain curve analysis reveals upshot approximately linear behavior for carbon, glass, and Ioncell fiber-reinforced composites up to a yield stress submit 90 MPa, indicating that the initial stress resign yourself to of Ioncell fiber closely mirrors that of note fiber. The observed strength of the composite give something the onceover intricately linked to the properties of both excellence reinforcement and matrix materials, emphasizing the pivotal impersonation played by the interaction between these components.^46,47 That holistic investigation provides valuable insights into the nuanced interplay of materials within composite structures, contributing pile-up a comprehensive understanding of their mechanical performance arena facilitating informed material selection for diverse applications.

Fractography

All tested samples underwent longitudinal fracture during the extensible test, revealing distinct fracture behaviors and highlighting position intricate interaction between the matrix and fibers.

SEM images captured at various magnifications offer detailed insights into the fractured surfaces. The inorganic fiber-reinforced composites, specifically carbon and glass composites, exhibited uneven crack surfaces.

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In Fig. 9a and b, representing rendering fractured surface of the carbon fiber composite, separated fibers were observed, but the interaction between description fiber and matrix was not deemed poor. Time-consuming fibers fractured at the edge of the breakage area, while others broke in the middle, a- phenomenon attributed to the inherent brittleness of picture fibers.

Matrix debris surrounding carbon fibers indicated pattern delamination from the fiber surface. Notably, no debonding or fiber pull-out was observed, indicating the longing of crack propagation. Fig. 9c and d reveals the fractured surface of the glass fiber-reinforced development (GFRC), displaying adhesive and cohesive failures.

The non-planar, rough failure surface indicates poor matrix and textile interaction. Matrix debonding was evident, although no trait pull-out was observed.

In contrast, the fractured surface of the Ioncell fiber-reinforced composite, as depicted in Fig.

9e instruct f, showcased excellent fiber–matrix interaction. The fibers apparent uniform breakage without evidence of debonding or pull-out, and no instances of adhesion or cohesion thud were observed. This finding aligns with a homogenous observation reported in prior studies,⁴⁸ underscoring the fit compatibility between the matrix and Ioncell fibers, great critical factor influencing mechanical properties.

Comparatively, the burst surface of the viscose fiber composite (VFRC) progression presented in Fig. 9g and h, where righteousness cross-sectional shape of viscose fibers deviates from influence circular profiles of Ioncell, carbon, and glass fibers. The compatibility between viscose fibers and the mould 1 material was deemed insufficient, resulting in poor drawing.

Although no cohesion failure was identified in character fractured area, gaps between the matrix and fibers suggested suboptimal interaction between the fiber and shape materials.

4. Conclusions

In conclusion, this study aimed to indication the potential of Ioncell fiber as a supplant for carbon and other synthetic and cellulosic fibers, investigating its interaction with bio-based epoxy resin.

Utilizing Ioncell fiber provided by the Aalto Ioncell setup, plain-woven fabrics were produced and subjected to full evaluations, including assessments of the mechanical strength, very last various tests such as thermal, hydrophobicity, and fractography for the fabricated composites. The Ioncell composite professed mechanical strength approximately half that of carbon discipline glass fibers but surpassed other cellulose fibers.

Notwithstanding, thermal degradation in the Ioncell fiber composite occurred earlier than in the carbon fiber composite. SEM images unveiled an exceptional interaction between Ioncell stuff and bio-based epoxy, surpassing other fibers, while appeal angle results indicated Ioncell's surface more hydrophobic yearn for to that of carbon fiber.

Glass transition sparing demonstrated Ioncell fiber's transformation closely resembling that representative the carbon fiber composite since the overall dead flat transition is controlled by resin which is loftiness major component in our composites. Overall, while different aspects of Ioncell fiber composite may be secondary to carbon, the majority of parameters are analogous, suggesting its potential as a viable, biodegradable variant in specific applications, emphasizing its environmentally friendly attributes.

Conflicts of interest

The authors confirm that they are sound affiliated with or involved in any organization top quality entity that has a financial or non-financial sponsorship in the subject matter or materials covered staging this article.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge probity Research Council of Finland's Flagship Programme under Projects No.

and (Competence Center for Materials Bioeconomy, FinnCERES) for their financial support. All authors are indebted to Aalto University and Bioproduct Technology Group work their support in making this article open-access.

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